The western portion, however, together with North-East Persia and Afghanistan, is responsible for the numerous varieties of the so-called Bokhara weave. The whole of the region is settled by various tribes, and it is their names that are given to many of the different types to be found. In the majority of instances the prayer rugs are not always easy to define, as there may only be a very small mihrab, hardly distinguishing the fact of its use. One of the types most commonly incorporating the mihrab although not seen very often is the Hatchli, which has the main field divided into four parts in the form of a cross. These are usually squarer than the rugs from other countries, and the non-prayer version is also used as a door flap to a tent. A more conventional prayer rug is attributed to Beshir, whilst the other main type in this district is called the Beloutch not from Beloutchistan, as is sometimes popularly supposed, but made by the wandering Beloutchi tribes from the North-East of Persia and Afghanistan.

New ground was broken in design, as can clearly be seen from the illustrations. It was left to the Armenian weavers of Istanbul at the beginning of the twentieth century to copy designs of the earlier period, in the so-called Kumkapu weave. That they copied faithfully there is no doubt, and to make the product look even more luxurious they used gold and silver threads in parts of the warp and weft, creating an embossed effect, and making the rug shine in the sun like a jewel.

Another oracle thereupon declared that whoever could untie the knot would eventually reign over Asia. Alexander severed the knot with his sword, and the kingdom went to him.

Rugs and carpets other than the prayer version were made in Ghiordes and other places in the Islamic world, but as this chapter is concerned only with namazlyks, other types will be dealt with separately under their respective chapter headings. One exception must, however, be mentioned here and that is the double prayer rug, with a kind of mihrab at each end.

It is not suggested that these rugs were used exclusively for the purposes of prayer, but no doubt they could be used in this manner. The type referred to is known as Kiz-Ghiordes. The word Kiz means ‘maiden’, and rugs of this type were made from the end of the eighteenth century by young girls either in harems or as part of a girl’s dowry on marriage or as a means of displaying her skill as a weaver to her prospective bridegroom. Very finely woven, these pieces come in a rather smaller size than that of the conventional prayer rug.

The best known and most sought after type of Ghiordes prayer rug is the Basra, made from the beginning as we know it (say the beginning of the seventeenth century) until the middle of the eighteenth century. It has been suggested that this name derives from the district of that name, now in Iraq, where possession of such pieces became the fashion amongst high-ranking Moslems. Much more positive evidence is required to confirm such a belief, but it does sound at least feasible. A peculiarity of the Basra weave is that when seen from the back, the weft shoots appear to be of short length, and are tied to each other in such a way that there is a zig-zag line up the length of the piece.

Konia This, the capital city of the Seljuki Turks, the ancient city of Iconium, is one of the several centres in Turkey, where the famous Whirling Dervishes perform their practices and is credited with the earliest preserved examples of rugs dating from the thirteenth century. These examples are not designed as prayer rugs as we know them, although they were found in the Mosque of Ala-ad-Din in Konia. They are now in the Museum of Islamic Art, Istanbul. Other pieces of the same period were found in the Eshrefiglu Mosque at Beyshehir, some distance away from Konia, but all these have been grouped together under the general title of Konia, even though they may not have been made there.

The Konia rugs in the various collections throughout the world stem from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, after which, in common with all other forms of Turkish art, a decline set in from which the craft has never recovered.

Oushak Although a great centre for the making of rugs and carpets in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, this town is more widely known for its large pieces than for individual prayer rugs. Many of the carpets of large size were made specially for Mosque use, and although most of them were of simple designs many Saphs, or communal prayer carpets, wrere made, with numerous mihrabs. The Oushak designs often bear some signs of Persian influence, and it is supposed that many of the craftsmen were indeed Persian.

Ladik The prayer rugs from this town, the ancient city of Laodicea, reached the peak of weaving excellence at the end of the seventeenth century and beginning of the eighteenth. Easily recognizable, early Ladiks are invariably constructed with a kind of triple mihrab, but the distinguishing feature is the row of tulips above the mihrab. No rug other than a prayer rug has yet been classed as Ladik, which seems to suggest that the production was primarily of this type.

Koula Not very far from Ghiordes lies this small city where a disinctive type of prayer rug was made from the seventeenth century until the general decline of the craft in Turkey.

Something akin to the Ghiordes in weave, Koulas generally seem to our eyes to be lacking in lively colour, particularly the type known as Mezarli or tomb rug, supposedly used at funerals, which is distinctive because the centre field is filled with designs bearing a resemblance to cypress trees. The normal early Koula prayer rug is prefixed Kafali and although there are further divisions Direkli, Komurju and Sinekli it is only the former that commands our attention for the purposes of this website.

Transylvanian, or Siebenbilrger There is some doubt as to where this particular type of rug was produced, but it is generally accepted that it was in the district of Oushak. Sometimes with one prayer niche, but mainly seen with a mihrab at each end, these rugs were found in profusion in the churches of Transylvania (now part of Roumania). Various theories have been advanced as to why these particular rugs should have been discovered in such quantities in this area, although they were not confined exclusively to it.

A feasible solution appears to be that they were gifts, given as a gesture of friendship or for propaganda purposes by the Military Governor of the Transylvanian district after the Balkan invasion by the Turks.

Another tenable theory that has been advanced is that at the time when the Ottoman Empire had spread its tentacles to cover the whole of South-Eastern Europe, for some inexplicable reason the Turkish authorities allowed the people of what was then Transylvania to continue to follow their Christian religion. The people of this area were great traders, and often, with the permission of the authorities, made trading journeys into Asia Minor. These journeys were fraught with innumerable hazards, not only of weather and inhospitable country, but also because of bandits and bands of marauding soldiers. Those fortunate travellers who safely ran the gauntlet both ways formed the habit of showing their gratitude to God for their preservation by making a present of the most valuable object they had brought back from their expedition, and this frequently took the form of a rug. So many of these rugs were found in the churches of Transylvania that the rug trade used that name to classify them.

It is said that the altar of the Black Church in Brasov was covered with rugs. It is estimated that about two thousand rugs were distributed. At the end of the nineteenth century some of these rugs found their way on to the market from Transylvania, and it was at this point that investigation showed that they were definitely of Anatolian origin. When found today, Transylvanian rugs are normally in extremely good condition, due, no doubt, to the fact they were never put to practical use but were used only to cover the altars of the churches.

Melas Prayer rugs have been made for centuries in the area of this small town in South-West Anatolia. It has been suggested that the so-called Transylvanian rugs originated here, but this has never been substantiated. As with the Ladik rugs, Melas are almost invariably found with prayer design.

Megri Not far south of Melas, on the coast opposite the island of Rhodes, is the little town of Megri. Prayer rugs from this area are often known as ‘Rhodes’ rugs, but there is no evidence to suppose that any were ever made on the island. Mainly eighteenth and nineteenth century examples are to be found. One particular type, while being of the normal prayer rug size, has two mihrabs, side by side, each obviously very narrow. This type is called the ‘Brothers rug’, presumably because it could be used by two persons but they must have been very thin if they were able to use the rug at the same time!

Broussa From this city famous for its velvets come brightly coloured, but finely woven silk prayer rugs. They appear to be a product of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, with an eye for export markets, but they are none the less very beautiful.

There are other names associated with the prayer rugs of Anatolia, but as none has contributed to the development or knowledge of the craft only small mention need be made of them here to complete the picture as far as Turkey is concerned. The Yuruk rugs were produced by a tribe inhabiting the eastern part of Anatolia. Mudjur and Kirshehir (those from the latter also being known as ‘Sultan’ rugs), together with the twentieth century Pandemia, account for practically all the better known names.

It is felt that any further breaking down may become confusing, and in fact some of the other names encountered are merely traders’ definitions denoting qualities in the bazaars of Istanbul.

Typical Arabic numerals used on rugs are:

As dated rugs show the Moslem year, which is a lunar year, it is necessary to make the following calculation in order to find the equivalent date in the Christian calendar:

1. Divide the rug date (Moslem year) by thirty-three
2. Deduct the result from the rug date
3. Add 622 to the remainder.

Example: the Ardebil carpet in the Victoria and Albert Museum is dated AH 946. By using the above system we will arrive at the year AD 1539/1540. It should be added that the numerals woven on a rug run from left to right.

It is not known exactly when the practice of using knotted rugs to cover the ‘unclean’ ground for the purposes of prayer first started, but it could not have been before AD 622 and it is said that it was almost a hundred years after the Hegira that a niche or mihrab was built into mosques for the purpose of indicating the direction of Mecca, the Holy City. The arch design on a prayer rug certainly serves this purpose; but it cannot be supposed that this came later than the architectural feature because, according to Islamic custom, all places are equal, and prayer may take place wherever one finds oneself at the appropriate time.

Consequently the rug may have preceded the mosque mihrab. There are, however, no surviving examples to point to from those early days. The earliest record yet known of the mihrab design is on a Persian miniature in the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris, dated 1436.

Some museums label a few of their early pieces as late sixteenth or early seventeenth century, and it is safe to assume that the latter dating is the more correct one. The largest producer was Asia Minor, and these are a quite distinct type, very different from those of other areas. Named after towns or villages, the prayer rugs of Asia Minor were the product of both nomadic and cottage industries, whereas the Persian ones were made under factory conditions, usually under Royal patronage, all of which is evident in their intricate and well drawn designs. Again, unlike the Persian rugs, those from Asia Minor closely followed the religious rules of the particular Islamic sect to which the inhabitants belong the Sunnites.

No representation of human faces or animals will be found on the rugs produced by adherents to the Sunnite law. In contrast, the Persian product will occasionally show animals, since the Shiite creed which they follow is not so particular in that respect. The Caucasus produced angular designs in keeping with all its products, many of which were dated, so helping to define periods of manufacture. Here again animal designs are found occasionally. The other area producing prayer rugs was Turkestan which, for this purpose, must include the Beloutch and Afghan rugs. No animal or human figures will be found in these rugs, which are the most easily identifiable with their deep blood red to brown ground colour, mostly associated with Bokhara rugs and the sombre black and deep purple of the Beloutch weavings.

The Golden Age for all prayer rugs lasted from the beginning of the seventeenth century until the end of the eighteenth. Although many rugs of this period are still in existence, the number to be found today is a very small percentage of those actually produced during those two centuries. This is quite understandable when we realize that of all knotted pile rugs it was the prayer rug which was made for the most practical use. Other types of rug were, of course, made for floor coverings, but many were also made for other uses, such as for covering divans, or for wall hangings, and many of the fine floor carpets were only used on special occasions, or for use in rooms with little traffic. The prayer rug, however, was used by its devout Moslem owner five times a day, it was laid on any surface available at the appointed hour, knelt on, in the centre of the field, which was often of plain weave, and after prayer, was rolled up and carried around until the next time.

Consequently, prayer rugs received more wear, particularly in one area of the rug, than any other type, and it is fortunate that so many have been preserved to the present day, even though most of them are rather thin in the centre.

Identification of prayer rugs is not difficult so far as the main divisions of area are concerned. Turkoman colours are based on the deep red or brown common to that area 5 Persian prayer rugs are curvilinear, with rounded mihrabs, many flowers, often with borders or spandrels filled with verses from the Koran, or the work of the many poets of the country; Caucasians are completely angular, as is all carpet design from this area; the remainder are Turkish, or, to give them the name currently applied to rugs from Asia Minor which defy further definition Anatolian.

In general, more positive identification can be made from the shape of the mihrab, but with the passing of time these changed, and there are pitfalls to be avoided in using this method. The main shapes used, and the areas from which they come, are shown here in illustrations, but this must not be taken to mean that all rugs of each type must have the mihrab depicted.

Also shown are some of the motifs used, particularly in the Turkish and Caucasian examples, such as the ibrik or water pitcher, the comb, the lamp, and the tulip, which is only seen in Ladik rugs.

The ibrik is represented because a Moslem must wash before praying. In desert regions, however, water may be very scarce. Sand or a white stone may be used to go through the actions of washing, or in the absence of these substitutes the owner of the rug may symbolically wash by rubbing his hands on the ibrik and then going through the motions of washing.

The comb motif has been said to represent a weaver’s comb, which is used in rug-making to beat a row of pile knots to the desired density; another suggestion is that it symbolizes the rays of the sun; but in a prayer rug the most likely explanation is that it is there to remind the worshipper that he must comb his beard before praying.

The lamp is said to represent the Mosque lamp, whilst the tulip motif of the Ladik is reminiscent of the Lale Devry, or tulip period, during the reign of Ahmed III (1703-30). Also influenced by this era were the famous Broussa velvets and Iznik pottery, both of which made a special feature ot tulips in their designs. The following paragraphs give the names of the most prominent types of prayer rug, together with details of interest connected with them.