Preserved in perpetual ice, the rug is in a remarkable state of preservation. The piece is 6 ft 6 inch X 6 ft and of fairly fine knotting, and by virtue of its design has been attributed to Persia. The knot is, however, of the Turkish variety.

After this remarkable example, now in the Hermitage Museum in Leningrad, one must bridge nearly two thousand years to discover the next oldest pieces to have been preserved. These are in the Museum of Islamic Art, Istanbul, and date from the thirteenth century. For all practical purposes, therefore, the continuous history of rugs may be said to begin here, Asia Minor being at that time, if not the only producer, at least the largest one. There are, of course, many examples to be seen in museums and private collections of what may be termed tapestry or embroidery work, but the above dating is primarily for the knotted rug, and it can be assumed that most of the techniques employed to make even the Pazyryk example were almost exactly the same as are used today to make hand-knotted Oriental rugs. Most probably horizontal looms were used, as opposed to the upright looms mainly used now, and of course the dyestuffs were obviously of vegetable or animal origin.

Even today there are nomadic tribes and cottage industries still using the horizontal loom, hand-spun yarn and natural dyestuff s, so it can be said that virtually nothing has changed since those far off days not even the designs. The tools used also remain unchanged.

The fourteenth, fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries have not left their mark in practical examples, but for painters they have provided a wonderful opportunity of depicting the type of pieces being imported from the East into Europe, and although the rugs themselves have long since disappeared, we are left with countless pictures by European artists of the day in which contemporary rugs were faithfully depicted. Even now, certain types of rug are referred to as ‘Holbein rugs’ because of the similarity of their design to those painted by that artist. In the main it was the Italian School which included rugs and carpets in their pictures, and this is understandable because it was through Venice that the European trade in Oriental rugs started. It is Holbein, however, who is remembered most in this connection.

The sixteenth century started what can now be regarded as the ‘Golden Age’ and the credit for such masterpieces goes to Persia. The best known example of this era is the Ardebil carpet in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London, which has the Islamic date corresponding to the year AD 1539 or 1540 woven into one end, together with the name of the person responsible for the production of the piece — Maksoud of Kashan. This sets the standard and period for other carpets of similar grandeur, and from then onwards the periods are well defined.

The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries saw the emergence of the Turkish prayer rug of high quality and finish, but in Persia a gentle decline then started which persisted until the second half of the nineteenth century, when the commercial production of Persian goods, prompted and financed by European and local merchants, proved to be a turning point in their fortunes.

From the end of the eighteenth century, Turkish weaving, with two exceptions, entered a decline from which it has never really recovered. The exceptions are the Hereke weave and the Kumkapu. Herekes became very famous at the beginning of the nineteenth century. They were produced under the patronage of Sultans Medjid and Aziz. Most of the pieces were of European design with strong French influence. Some were wool, many in large room sizes; others were made in very fine knotting, with silk pile. In both types, the technique of embossing the shearing of the pile to different heights to throw certain designs into relief was first executed. The silk rugs were presented to visiting royalty and other distinguished foreign visitors, including Queen Victoria and the Empress Eugenie of France. All genuine Herekes of this period are signed in one corner in Arabic calligraphy.

Kumkapus were the successors of the Herekes. At the beginning of the twentieth century when production at Hereke ceased, Armenian weavers under the master weaver Zare-Aga of Istanbul began to create silk rugs with gold and silver threads. These were embossed, but this time did not have pile of different heights. Here the rugs were made partly of pile, which stood out in strong relief against a background of gold or silver warps and wefts without pile. The designs used were those of the great period of Persia; also there were intricate prayer rugs woven with verses from the Koran in the borders, carried out in intaglio with gold or silver warp threads which gave a subdued refulgence to the sacred words. These pieces were some of the finest ever woven and today command high prices in world markets.

So far, only Persia and Turkey have been discussed. The other weaving areas, apart from the Caucasus, contribute little to the overall historical picture, although individual items are, of course, preserved in museums and collections from all the known areas. The Caucasus, however, must rank in importance with Turkey, for it is possible that Turkey might not have reached the artistic heights which she did without Armenian influence.

Some of the early pieces now attributed to Turkey most probably came either from the Caucasus or from Armenian looms in Turkey, as it was only when Europeans and Americans took an interest in the techniques and history of Oriental rugs that geographical divisions were made. These have been handicapped over the centuries by the numerous political changes in the countries of the Middle East. It is significant that some of the rugs depicted in early European paintings were undoubtedly Caucasian in design and were not Turkish at all, although all Oriental carpets, at least in England in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, were described as ‘Turkish’ and even pieces made in England at that time were known as ‘Turkish carpets of English making’. In an inventory of Bridget, Countess of Bedford, dated 1602, we find:

‘Item one Turkey Carpett of Englishe makinge Item two Wyndowe Turkey Carpettes of my owne makinge the one of them being wrought with Roses and Marygouldes.’ Included in an inventory of property belonging to Henry Howard, Earl of Northampton, dated 1614, is the following: ‘Item a longe Turkie carpett of Englishe worke with the Earle of Northampton his armes, being 5 yeardes and 3 quarters longe.’ The market for export to Europe from the hinterland was Constantinople, and of course, even in Turkey itself, the refugees from the ill-fated country of Armenia took their culture with them and wove rugs, so in some respects in those early days it is not possible to make positive identification of certain pieces.

What of the twentieth century? Have rugs been produced which will stand the test of time? Now that we have passed through two thirds of the century some consideration may be given to the pieces produced in the first years. The Kum-kapus have already been mentioned. In Turkey little else has been made worthy of note in this chapter. In Persia, certain pieces, especially from Tabriz and Kashan, are now at the ’semi-antique’ stage, that is, mellowed enough for good furnishing, and still in good pile, giving promise for the future. One or two outstanding rugs have been made in Kashmir, but these are in the nature of technical accomplishment rather than works of art, with up to 2600 knots to the square inch.

Of course, during this century new techniques have been applied, not in the actual weaving, which is still done in the traditional manner, but in the preparatory processes such as spinning — yarns are now in the main machine-spun; dyeing in most instances what may be called artificial dye-stuffs as opposed to natural ones are now used; and chemical washing, which artificially mellows or even changes some harsh colours, imparting a lustrous silky sheen to a piece and giving what is regarded by many as a more luxurious finish than hitherto. In addition to these twentieth-century innovations, none of which assist in creating the treasures of the future, it must be borne in mind that, while designs have not changed to any great extent over the years, there can only be one original, and in most instances that original was made at least 200 years ago. Consequently the rugs of today, while they are probably commercially successful, can with few exceptions be regarded as no more than copies.